American Journal of Distance Education

This article describes a practical approach to judging the nature and quality of critical discourse in a computer conference. A model of a critical community of inquiry frames the research. A core concept in defining a community of inquiry is cognitive presence. In turn, the practical inquiry model operationalizes cognitive presence for the purpose of developing a tool to assess critical discourse and reflection. The authors present encouraging empirical findings related to an attempt to create an efficient and reliable instrument to assess the nature and quality of critical discourse and thinking in a text‐based educational context. Finally, the authors suggest that cognitive presence (i.e., critical, practical inquiry) can be created and supported in a computer‐conference environment with appropriate teaching and social presence.

Many of the greatest problems of communicating about concepts, and, therefore, practice in distance education arise from our use of crude hypothetical constructs-terms like distance, independence, and interaction, which are used in very imprecise and general ways, each having acquired a multiplicity of meanings. Most seriously, the same terms are commonly used at both generic and more specific levels. For example, the generic concept "independence " is frequently confused with its species, independence of learners from instructors in space and time and independence of learners to control their means of study. These are further confused with the many subspecies of each type of independence. The same could be said of the concept and term "distance " itself, which is commonly used in the most general sense to describe education characterized by separation between learner and instructor, but by too few users in the more technical and specific meanings as discussed, for example, by Saba (1988), Keegan (1988), Shale (1988), or Moore (1984). Interaction is another important term that carries so many meanings as to be almost useless unless specific submeanings can be defined and generally agreed upon. Progress in this direction was made in a panel discussion convened by the Divisions of Independent Study and Educational Telecommunications of the National University Continuing Education Association at its annual meeting in Salt Lake City on 16 April 1989. Chaired by Shirley Davis of Purdue University, the panel was

Based on the GlobalEd inter‐university computer conference, this study examined how effective “social presence” is as a predictor of overall learner satisfaction in a text‐based medium. The stepwise regression analysis converged on a three‐predictor model revealing that social presence (the degree to which a person is perceived as “real” in mediated communication), student perception of having equal opportunity to participate, and technical skills accounted for about 68% of the explained variance. Social presence alone contributed about 60% of this variance, suggesting that it may be a very strong predictor of satisfaction. Reliability data on the social presence scale is provided. The results also indicated that participants who felt a higher sense of social presence enhanced their socio‐emotional experience by using emoticons to express missing nonverbal cues in written form. These findings have implications for designing academic computer conferences where equal attention must be paid to designing techniques that enhance social presence.

This study assessed the depth of online learning, with a focus on the nature of online interaction in four distance education course designs. The Study Process Questionnaire was used to measure the shift in students' approach to learning from the beginning to the end of the courses. Design had a significant impact on the nature of the interaction and whether students approached learning in a deep and meaningful manner. Structure and leadership were found to be crucial for online learners to take a deep and meaningful approach to learning.

Online learning as a concept and as a keyword has consistently been a focus of education research for over two decades. In this paper, we present results from a systematic literature review for the definitions of online learning because the concept of online learning, though often defined, has a range of meanings attached to it. Authors and scholars use the term to mean very distinct, if not contradictory concepts. We conducted systematic literature for over the last 30 years (1988 to 2018) to investigate the number and content of definitions of online learning. We collected 46 definitions from 37 resources and conducted a content analysis on these sets of definitions. Content analysis of the collected definitions led to an understanding of the core elements for defining online learning, the confusion surrounding the terms and the synonyms used for online learning. An evolution of the definition of the concept of online learning was also mapped to the evolution of technology in the last three decades.

The purpose of this research was to study social presence in the online learning environment. Dimensions of social presence were examined using quantitative and qualitative methods. Three dimensions of social presence-social context, online communication, and interactivity-emerged as important elements in establishing a sense of community among online learners. The privacy factor was also an important element in the level of comfort for students online. An increase in the level of online interaction occurs with an improved level of social presence. This can be fostered by considering characteristics of the learners, by selecting the appropriate computer-mediated communication medium, and by applying appropriate instructional elements to course design.

The fields of learning theory and instructional design are in the midst of a scientific revolution in which their objectivist philosophical foundations are being replaced by a constructivist epistemology. This article describes the assumptions of a constructivist epistemology, contrasts them with objectivist assumptions, and then describes instructional systems that can support constructive learning at a distance.

Most treatments of the concept of interaction in distance education have been based on Moore's (1989) discussion of three types of interaction: learner‐content, learner‐instructor, and learner‐learner. However, these previous discussions have failed to consider the interaction that occurs between the learner and the technologies used to deliver instruction. This article presents the concept of learner‐interface interaction and recommends instructional design strategies that will facilitate students' acquisition of the skills needed to participate effectively in the electronic classroom.

A common theme in the distance education literature is that delivery technologies with the potential for real‐time interactivity will improve both the image and practice of distance education. Although there appears to be a growing acceptance of a causal relationship between system interactivity and instructional interaction, neither concept has been clearly or functionally defined. This article discusses several systems models and relates them to the contexts of instructional delivery, instructional design, instructional theory, and learning theory in an attempt to establish conceptual parameters for the function of interaction.

Meta-analysis provides a method of quantitatively summarizing and comparing empirical literature to reduce Type I and Type II error. The meta-analysis described here indicates a slight student preference for a traditional educational format over a distance education format (average r = .031, after the deletion of outliers), and little difference in satisfaction levels. A comparison of distance education methods that include direct interactive links with those that do not include interactive links demonstrates no difference in satisfaction levels. However, student satisfaction levels diminish as additional information is added to the available channel of instruction (e.g., written to audio to video). The findings support those of researchers arguing that distance education does not diminish the level of student satisfaction when compared to traditional face-to-face methods of instruction.

Learning management system (LMS) adoption has become increasingly common in higher education, yet most research emphasizes individual technology acceptance rather than the organizational processes that influence successful implementation. This study explored how leadership, communication, institutional readiness, training, and organizational culture shaped technology acceptance during a large-scale LMS migration. Guided by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this qualitative single-case study examined an LMS migration at a private higher education institution. Data were collected through 30 semi-structured interviews, 33 reflective journal responses, and institutional artifacts. Thematic analysis and data triangulation were used to identify recurring patterns across stakeholder groups. Six themes emerged: (a) communication served as the foundation of organizational change; (b) leadership visibility and strategic direction influenced stakeholder confidence more than formal authority; (c) institutional readiness shaped participants’ experiences throughout implementation; (d) training and ongoing support facilitated adoption; (e) perceptions of usefulness and ease of use developed over time through sustained interaction with the system; and (f) voice, organizational culture, and emotional responses influenced stakeholder buy-in. Findings suggest that successful LMS implementation extends beyond the individual-level constructs described by TAM. Leadership engagement, communication practices, organizational readiness, and sustained institutional support shaped participants’ perceptions of usefulness and ease of use throughout the migration process. These findings extend technology acceptance research by demonstrating that organizational conditions influence technology adoption during large-scale institutional change and provide practical guidance for higher education leaders planning future LMS transitions.

Este estudio analiza las relaciones estructurales entre las competencias digitales previas, los estilos cognitivos VARK y el rendimiento académico en un diplomado virtual de gestión de riesgos dirigido a profesionales de la protección infantil en Colombia N=150. Mediante un diseño cuantitativo cuasi-experimental pre-post, los datos se analizaron con análisis de rutas dentro del modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM). El modelo estimó los efectos directos de las competencias iniciales, el papel moderador de los perfiles VARK y la evolución longitudinal de las habilidades digitales n=70. Se observó un posible efecto de nivelación: una menor competencia digital previa tendió a asociarse con mayores ganancias académicas; no obstante, esta relación no alcanzó significación estadística β=−0,058;p=0,220. Ninguna dimensión VARK moderó significativamente la relación entre competencia digital y rendimiento (p > 0,20), aunque la dimensión visual presentó el coeficiente de mayor magnitud β=0,0013;p=0,350. Finalmente, las competencias digitales aumentaron significativamente durante la intervención (d=0,44;p<0,001). Los resultados sugieren que la competencia digital podría actuar como facilitador dinámico del aprendizaje, más que como predictor lineal y estático del logro académico, hipótesis que deberá corroborarse mediante diseños controlados. Los hallazgos evidencian la necesidad de incorporar estrategias instruccionales multimodales que mitiguen las dificultades observadas en estudiantes con preferencias auditivas y kinestésicas. En última instancia, las políticas de educación a distancia inclusivas deberían tratar las deficiencias técnicas iniciales no como barreras, sino como oportunidades de apoyo pedagógico específico.

In online distance education, early disengagement can be difficult to detect because tutors and instructors have limited direct visibility of students’ learning behavior. This study examines whether weekly participation and assignment-submission records can support the early prediction of final academic status in online post-secondary technical training and transition-to-higher-education courses. It also evaluates the use of NN2Poly to provide an interpretable representation of neural network predictions for academic monitoring. The analysis used administrative and academic process data from 4,069 students enrolled in online short-cycle technical training courses. A neural network model classified students into passing, failing, and abandonment using cumulative temporal windows that progressively incorporated the information available at different stages of the course. The resulting decision functions were approximated with NN2Poly through symbolic polynomial expressions, and approximation quality was evaluated using classification fidelity and normalized logit-level RMSE. The largest improvement in predictive performance occurred after incorporating participation records from the first four weeks and assignment-submission records from the first three deliverables, identifying this period as a relevant window for early academic intervention. The neural network achieved competitive performance relative to traditional classifiers, while the NN2Poly approximation showed that assignment-submission variables increased the passing logit and reduced the failing and abandonment logits. As engagement data accumulated, the model shifted from a combination of contextual and academic-process signals towards a stronger reliance on assignment-submission indicators. These findings suggest that interpretable early-warning models can support tutor-led monitoring in online courses when predictions are used to inform rather than determine academic support decisions. By combining temporal early-warning modelling with symbolic interpretability, the study identifies when digital engagement traces become informative for intervention and provides an interpretable representation of their changing role in the neural network decision function.

Researchers in the current study created a self-paced online training module of visual schedules and evaluated the effects of online training on pre-service teachers’ case application of the visual schedules strategy (“CHECK”) to support individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. A pre/posttest control group design was utilized. Results indicated that the self-paced online training effectively increased pre-service general education teachers’ case application of the visual schedules strategy. However, the results also showed that participants did not follow all the strategy steps, especially those for visual schedules. In addition, participants agreed that the online module was socially acceptable and beneficial. The results are discussed from a perspective of training effect and social validity. Limitations and implications for future research are also discussed.

This study investigates how perceived learning support, collaborative learning quality, and AI-assisted learning quality influence student learning effectiveness through learning engagement and whether these mechanisms differ between face-to-face and online modes. A quantitative research design was adopted, and data were collected from university students enrolled in courses delivered through either face-to-face or online modes. Structural equation modeling was employed to test the proposed relationships. The results confirm the established positive relationships between the three instructional antecedents, learning engagement, and learning effectiveness. More importantly, learning engagement mediated all three relationships, and learning mode differentiated the effects of collaborative and AI-assisted learning quality: collaboration was more consequential in face-to-face settings, whereas AI-assisted learning quality was more consequential online. By distinguishing confirmatory baseline relationships from these focal mediated and mode-contingent findings, the study clarifies how instructional mechanisms should be configured across educational settings. Practical implications provide specific design actions for face-to-face, online, and blended courses.

The influence of personality-based behavioral inhibitors on students’ attitudes toward Learning Management Systems remains underexplored. Drawing on norm theory and status quo bias, this study develops a theoretical model to examine whether dispositional resistance to change influences students’ post-adoption attitudes toward using a Learning Management System and how perceptions of system attributes – convenience and ease of use – moderate this relationship. The research model is tested with survey data collected from 220 university-student Google Classroom users in Thailand using PLS-SEM. A key finding is that resistance to change has a direct positive effect on students’ attitudes toward using Google Classroom and that this relationship is negatively moderated by both convenience and ease of use. For practitioners, these results suggest that increasing convenience and decreasing effort can reduce the influence of resistance to change on students’ attitudes, while training and technical support can lead to more favorable attitudes toward using new system features, thereby encouraging continuance behavior. This paper contributes by offering a new theoretical perspective and empirical evidence regarding the resistance to change–attitude relationship in the context of post-adoption use of Learning Management Systems, contrasting with findings in the broader technology acceptance literature. Overall, this study highlights the importance of personality-based inhibitors, such as dispositional resistance to change, in understanding post-adoption use of Learning Management Systems and offers theoretical and empirical insights for online learning research.

As digital learning has expanded across K–12 education, school leaders increasingly navigate organizational, instructional, and governance conditions that differ from those of traditional schooling. This exploratory qualitative study examines how digital leaders conceptualize their professional responsibilities in digitally mediated environments. Drawing on focus groups with 127 leaders representing diverse roles, organizational levels, and digital learning models, the study identifies four domains of leadership work and four cross-cutting organizational conditions that shape leadership practice. Together, these findings are synthesized into the Digitally Mediated School Leadership Framework, which conceptualizes leadership as digitally mediated work in which authority, coordination, and professional judgment are reorganized through technological infrastructures. The framework advances leadership theory by clarifying how technological mediation reshapes school leadership across diverse educational contexts.

This study investigates the distance education practices, self-efficacy perceptions, and professional development needs of higher education faculty members in the post-pandemic period, using Moore’s Theory of Transactional Distance as a theoretical framework. Designed as a holistic single-case study within a Turkish higher education context, the research included 11 faculty members selected via purposive sampling. Data obtained from semi-structured interviews were analyzed using an inductive content analysis approach. The findings, structured around three main research questions and seven distinct themes, revealed that faculty members exhibited a pedagogical assimilation by directly transferring face-to-face routines to digital platforms, which rigidified course structures. Furthermore, while participants felt confident in using basic technological tools, they experienced pedagogical vulnerability regarding virtual classroom management and online assessment. The lack of visual cues and the loss of traditional academic authority transformed the transactional distance into a psychological detachment. Consequently, professional development demands have shifted from one-off software tutorials toward continuous pedagogical mentorship and ecosystem-wide support. The results emphasize that sustainable distance education requires a fundamental mind-set transformation, supported by mandatory pedagogical training and institutional peer-review policies, rather than mere infrastructural investments.

The COVID-19 disruption forced the most comprehensive shift to online delivery in U.S. graduate education history. This study examines whether that change represents a permanent restructuring or a transient adjustment, and how it relates to differential doctoral completion outcomes across fields with different research methodologies. We apply a multilevel quasi-experimental design to two federal census-level datasets: the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS; 18,826 institution-year observations, 2014-2022) and the Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED; 34 subfields, 2012-2022). Each institution serves as its own control in a fixed-effects panel model (institution-level ICC = .702), supplemented by interrupted timeseries and sector-disaggregated analysis. The online enrollment surge was not transient: by 2022, online-engaged enrollment remained about 6% points above pre-pandemic projections, with hybrid delivery accounting for the larger share. Within institutions, the pandemic produced a sharp increase of nearly 13% points, roughly half of which persisted into 2022. Doctoral completion trajectories diverged: co-presence-dependent fields (e.g. history, foreign languages, anthropology) experienced sustained declines, while computationally oriented fields (e.g. computer science, engineering) grew. A trend-adjusted model attributes a 20.6% post-pandemic completion advantage to computationally oriented fields beyond preexisting divergence. The post-pandemic environment is a sustained, stratified system rather than a return to baseline. The design documents fieldlevel trajectories but cannot assign them to individual-level modality exposure. Findings inform online doctoral program design, hybrid modality investment, and accreditation monitoring.

Since the first correspondence education system via postal services was established in the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century, distance education has continued to develop through various educat...